PENDEKATAN PENGEMBANGAN KURIKULUM
Oleh:
MUMU MUZAYYIN MAQ, M.Pd.
BAB I
PENDAHULUAN
A. Latar belakang
Kurikulum merupakan rancangan pendidikan yang merangkum pengalaman belajar yang disediakan bagi sekolah. Dalam pelaksanaannya di butuhkan suatu pendekatan dan juga model – model pengembangan kurikulum. Dalam makalah ini akan di jabarkan dua pendekatan yaitu pendekatan administratif dan pendekatan grass root. Ada beberapa model yang akan dibahas dalam makalah ini, ada delapan model antara lain the administratif model, the grass root model, beauchamp’s system, the demonstration model, roger’s interpersonal relation model, the systematic action – research model dan juga energing technical model.
Dalam proses pembelajaran di kelas yang di lakukan oleh seorang pendidik mengacu kepada kurikulum yang sudah ada, namun kurikulum yang sudah ada tidak menjamin kurikulum ini akan meningkatkan sistem pembelajaran. Untuk mengembangkan suatu kurikulum di perlukan suatu pendekatan pengembangan dan model – model pengembangan kurikulum, keduanya sangat penting. Dengan adanya suatu pendekatan dan model – model pengembangan kurikulum akan mempermudah seorang guru untuk melaksanakan dan mengembangkan suatu kurikulum guna mencapai tujuan yang di harapkan, apalagi dengan melihat perkembangan zaman yang sudah sangat maju. Kuriulum juga harus di korelasikan dengan perkembangan zaman yang semakin pesat, agar keduanya dapat berjalan secara seimbang.
B. Rumusan masalah
a. Menjelaskan dua pendekatan yaitu pendekatan administratif dan pendekatan grass root
b. Menjelaskan delapan model – model pengembangan kurikulum
C. Tujuan
Tujuan dari makalah ini, untuk memenuhi tugas mandiri. Selain itu juga untuk menjawab dari perumusan masalah yang ada dalam makalh in
BAB II
PEMBAHASAN
PENDEKATAN PENGEMBANGAN KURIKULUM
Pendekatan diartikan sebagai suatu sudut pandang seseorang terhadap suatu proses tertentu. Istilah pendekatan mengacu pada suatu cerminan tentang terjadinya suatu proses yang sifatnya masih umum. Maka pendekatan pengembangan kurikulum menjadi titik tolak pada proses pengembangan kurikulum.
Pengembangan kurikulum bermakna luas. Menurut Sukma Dinata (2000:1) pengembangan kurikulum bisa berarti penyusunan kurikulum yang sama sekali baru (curriculum construction), bisa juga menyempurnakan kurikulum yang sudah ada (curriculum improvement). Di sisi lain, pengembangan kurikulum berarti menyusun seluruh perangkat kurikulum, mulai dari dasar – dasar kurikulum, struktur dan sebaran mata pelajaran, garis – garis besar program pengajaran, sampai dengan pedoman pelaksanaan (macro curriculum). Di sisi lain juga kurikulum (GBPP) yang telah di susun menjadi rencana dan persiapan mengajar yang dikerjakan oleh guru, seperti penyusunan program tahunan, program semester, catur wulan, satuan pelajaran dan sebagainya.
Dalam pengembangan kurikulum pada konteksnya mencakup pendekatan dan model pengembangan kurikulum.
Dilihat dari cakupan pengembangan apakah termasuk ke dalam curriculum construction atau curriculum improvement., ada dua pendekatan yang diterapkan dalam pengembangan kurikulum. Pertama pendekatan top down atau pendekatan administrative dan kedua pendekatan grass root.
1. Pendekatan top down.
Pendekatan top down muncul dari ide dari para pejabat pendidikan seperti dirjen atau para kepala kantor wilayah. Pendekatan dengan system komando dari atas kebawah. Pendekatan ini juga disebut dengan line staff model. Pendekatan ini banyak dipakai dengan yang memiliki system pendidikan sentralisasi. Ditinjau dari cakupan pengembangannya pendekatan top down bisa dilakukan baik untuk menyusun kurikulum yang baru atau menyempurnakan kurikulum yang sudah ada sebelumnya.
Adapun prosedur pengembangan kuriukulum model seperti ini adalah sebagai berikut :
a. Pembentukan tim pengarah oleh pejabat pendidikan. Anggota tim ini terdiri dari pejabat yang ada di bawahnya seperti para penngawas pendidikan, ahli kurikulum, ahli disiplin ilmu dan para tokoh dari dunia pendidikan. Tugasnya adalah merumuskan konsep dasar, garis – garis besar kebijakan, menyiapkjan rumusan falsafah dan tujuan umum pendidikan.
b. Menyuisun tim untuk menjabar kebijakan atau rumusan – rumusan yang telah di susun oleh tim pengarah. Anggotanya antara lain para ahli hokum, para ahli disiplin ilmu dari perguruan tinggi dan juga guru – guru senior yang sudah berpengalaman. Tugas tim ini adalah merumuskan tujuan – tujuan yang lebih operasional dari tujuan – tujuan umum, memilih dan menyusun sequence bahan pelajaran, memilih strategi pengajaran dan alat evaluasi., serta menyusun pedoman – pedoman pelaksanaan kurikulum bagi guru.
c. Setelah kurikulum selesai di susun, selanjutnya hasilnya di serahkan kepada tim perumus untuk di kaji dan di revisi. Bila kurikulum itu perlu di uji coba dan di evaluasi kelayakannya maka hasil uji coba itu digunakan sebagai bahan penyempurnaan.
d. Para administrator memerintahkan kepada setiap sekolah untuk mengimplementasikan kurikulm yang telah di susun dengan baik.
Dapat di simpulkan bahwa penyempurnaan atau perubahan kuirkulum dimulai oleh pemegang kebijakan kurikulum, sedangkan tugas guru sebagai pelaksana kurikulum yang sudah di susun oleh para pemegang kebijakan. Oleh karena itu proses pengembangan dengan pendekatan top down dinamakan juga pendekatan system komando.
2. Pendekatan Grass Root
Pada pendekatan administrasif, menggunakan system komando yaitu dari atas ke bawah, sedangkan pendekatan grass root ini sebaliknya yaitu dari bawah ke atas. Pendekatan ini muncul atas inisiatif dari guru – guru sebagai implementator, kemudian menyebar ke lingkungan yang lebih luas. Pendekatan ini lebih banyak di gunakan dalam penyempurnaan kurikulum (curriculum improvement), mungkin juga digunakan untuk kurikulum yang masih baru (curriculum construction).
Ada beberapa syarat pendekatan grass root dapat berlangsung, antara lain :
a. Ketika kurikulum bersifat lentur maka guru dapat memperbaharui atau menyempurnakan yang sedang di berlakukan.
b. Pendekatan ini terjadi ketika guru memiliki sikap professional yang tinggi disertai kemampuan yang memadai. Sikap professional itu ditandai dengan keinginan untuk mencoba sesuatu yang baru dengan tujuan untuk meningkatkan kinerjanya. Selain itu menggali pengetahuan yang belum ia dapatkan, dia tidak akan merasa puas jikalau hasilnya tidak sesuai yang ia harapkan.
Ada beberapa langkah penyempurnaan kurikulum dengan menggunakan pendekatan grass root ini :
a. Menyadari adnya masalah, biasanya diawali dengan keresahan guru tentang kurikulum yang berlaku. Dia merasa tidak cocok dengan strategi pembelajaran atau evaluasi yang tidak sesuai dengan harapan atau masalah kurangnya motivasi belajar dan lain – lain. Kesadaran dari guru akan adanya masalah merupakan kunci dalam grass root. Tanpa adanya kesadaran masalah maka pendekatan grass root tidak akan berlangsung.
b. Mengadakan refleksi. Kalau seorang guru mulai merasakan adanya suatu masalah maka selanjutnya mencari penyebab munculnya masalah tersebut. Refleksi dilakukan dengan mengkaji literature yang relevan missal membaca buku, jurnal penelitian dengan masalah yang kita hadapi atau mengkaji sumber informasi lain atau melacak sumber dari internet, melakukan diskusi dan lain sebagainya.
c. Mengajukan hipotesis atau jawaban sementara. Berdasarkan hasil refleksi, selanjutnya guru memetakan berbagai kemungkinan munculnya masalah dan cara penanggulangannya.
d. Menentukan hippotesis yang sangat mungkin dan dekat dan dapat dilakukan sesuai dengan situasi dan kondisi lapangan. Dilangkah yang ke empat ini hanya memilih kemungkinan yang dapat dilakukan danselanjutbnya merencanakan apa yang harus dilakukan untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut. Disamping itu seorang guru harus memperkirakan kemungkinan – kemungkinan yang akan terjadi sehingga kita dapat menyelesaikan masalah tersebut.
e. Mengimplementasikan perencanaan dan mengevaluasi secara terus menerus sehingga dapat memecahkan masalah yang ditangani.
f. Membuat dan menyusun laporan hasil pelaksanaan pengembangan melalui grass root.
Pendekatan grass root sangat menentukan sekali bagi guru sebagai implementator dalam perubahan dan penyempurnaan kuriklulum. Tugas administrator dalam pengembangan model ini berperan sebagai motivator dan fasilitator. Perubahan atau penyempurnaan kurikulum bisa di mulai oleh guru secara individual atau oleh sekelompok guru.
Di negara – negara yang menerapkan system pendidikan desentralisasi pengembangan model grass root ini sangat mungkin untuk terjadi, sebab kebijakan pendidikan tidak lagi diatur oleh pusat sentralistik, akan tetapi pengembangan kurikulum secar sekaligus pun tidak terlepas dari kontribusi para implementator lapangan ini.
Dari referensi lain terdapat 2 pendekatan dalam pengembangan kurikulum yaitu :
1. Pendekatan yang berorientasi pada bahan pelajaran
Dalam pendekatan ini, pertanyaan yang pertama pada saat mennyusun kurikulum ialah materi apa saja yang perlu di ajarkan kepada murid?
Bila telah di tentukan pokok – pokok bahan yang akan di ajarkan, penguraiannya akan di jabarkan pada setiap pokok – pokok bahan pelajaran.
2. Pendekatan yang berorientasi pada tujuan pengajaran
Pertanyaan yang timbul pada saat penyusunan kurikulum adalah tujuan – tujuan apa yang ingin di capai atau pengetahuan keterampilan dan sikap apakah yang akan kita harapkan dimiliki oleh murid setelah menyelesaikan kurikulum ini?
Jawaban dari pertanyaan diatas selanjutnya akan dirumuskan tujuan – tujuan dalam bentuk pengetahuan, keterampilan dan sikap yang kita harapkan. Selanjutnya di tetapkan pokok – pokok bahan pelajaran dan kegiatan belajar mengajar, semuanya akan di arahkan untuk mencapai tujuan yang di inginkan.
Dapat kita simpulkan kebaikan dan kekurangan masing – masing dari pendekatan diatas adalah sebagai berikut :
Kebaikan dari pendekatan yang berorientasi pada bahan pelajaran adalah kita lebih fleksibel atau bebas dalam menyusun bahan pelajaran karena tidak terikat oleh tujuan yang tegas. Kekurangannya adalah :
a) bahan pelajaran yang kita susun kurang jelas arah dan tujuannya.
b) Kurang ada dalam pegangan dalam menentukan metode mana yang tepat untuk menyajikan bahan tersebut kepada murid.
c) Kurang jelasa pada segi – segi apa yang akan di nilai pada murid setelah menyelesaikan pelajaran dan bagaimana cara menilainya.
Kebaikan dari pendekatan yang berorientasi pada tujuan adalah :
a) Tujuan yang ingin di capai jelas bagi penyusunan kurikulum.
b) Tujuan yang jelasa akan memberikan arah dalam menetapkan bahan, metode, jenis – jenis kegiatan dan alat yang diperlukan guna mencapai tujuan.
c) Tujuan yang jelas akan memberikan arah di dalam menentukan penilaian terhadap hasil yang di capai.
d) Hasil penilaian yang terarah akan membantu menyusun kurikulum dalam mengadakan perbaikan – perbaikan yang di perlukan.
Kesukaran dalam pendekatan ini adalah kesukaran dalam merumuskan tujuan, terlebih lagi kalau tujuan tersebut harus di rumuskan secara khusus.
Ketika seorang guru melakukan proses pembelajaran di kelas, melaksanakan pendekatan sangat penting sekali, oleh karena itu sangat di perlukan sekali model – model pengembangan kurikulum untuk mengopimalkan pendekatan pengembangan kurikulum. Model – model pengembangan kurikulum sangat penting sekali dalam mengembangkan suatu kurikulum yan gsedang di berlakukan. Model – model ini akan membantu seorang guru untuk mengubah atau memperbaharui kurikulum yang ada. Para pelaku pendidikan harus memahami keberadaan, kegunaan dan manfaat atau tujuan dari model – model pengembangan kurikulum. Seorang pendidik harus memahami suatu kurikulum, karena hal ini meyangkut dengan kompetensi pedagogik yang harus dimiliki oleh seorang guru. Tertuang dalam UUD No.14 tahun 2005 pasal 10 ayat 1 tentang guru dan dosen, kompetensi pedagogik adalah kemampuan menelola pembelajaran peserta didik. Selain itu juga meliputi kompetensi kepribadian, kompetensi sosial dan kompetensi profesional.
Kurikulum yang sedang di berlakukan di sekolah – sekolah saat ini adalah Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) dimana kurikulum ini merupakan penyempurnaan dari Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi (KBK), KTSP di susun dan dilaksanakan di masing – masing satuan pendidikan sehingga para pendidik di harapkan untuk mengoptimalkan kemampuannya dalam menyusun kurikulum sesuai dengan keadaan, kondisi keperluan satuan sekolah. Tidak sedikit juga para pendidik yang belum memahami model – model pengembangan kurikulum. Maka untuk memahami model – model pengembangan kurikulum, para pendidik terlebih dahulu harus mengetahuai macam – macam model – model pengembangan kurikulum. Adapun model – model pengembangan kurikulum di jabarkan di bawah ini :
1. The administrative model
Diberi nama model administratif atau line staff karena inisiatif dan gagawan pengembangan dating dari para administrator pendidikan dan menggunakan prosedur administrasi. Denngna wewenang administrasinya, administator pendidikan (dirjen, direktur atau kepala kantor wilayah pendidikan dan kebudayaan) membentuk suatu tim pengarah pengembangan kurikulum. Tim in iterdiri atas pejabat dibawahnya, seperti para ahli pendidikan, ahli kurikkulum, ahli disiplin ilmu dan para tokoh dari dunia kerja dan perusahaan. Tugas tim ini adalah merumuskan konsep – konsep dasar, landasan – landasan, kebijaksanaan dan strategi utama dalam pengembangan kurikulum. Setelah hal ini sudah dapat di rumuskan dan dapat pengkajian secara seksama, administator pendidikan menyusun tim kerja pengembangan kurikulum. Tim ini terdiri atas para ahli pendidikan / kurikulum, ahli disiplin ilmu dari perguruan tinggi, guru – gur bidang studi yang senior. Tim kerja pengembangan kurikulum bertugas menyusun kurikulum yang lebih operasional, dijabarkan dari konsep – konsep dan kebijaksanaan dasar yang t elah digariskan oleh tim pengarah. Tugas tim kerja ini merumuskan tujuan – tujuan yang lebih operasional dari tujuan yang lebih umum, memilih dan menyusun skuens bahan pelajaran, memilih strategi pembelajaran dan evaluasi, menyusun pedoman pelaksanaan kurikulum tersebut bagi guru.
Hasil dari semua tugas dari tim kerja pengembangan kurikuluk kemudian, dikaji ulang oleh tim pengarah serta para ahli lain yang berwenang. Setelah di sempurnakan dengan cukup baik, administator pemberi tugas menetapkan berlakunya kurikulum tersebut serta memerintahkan sekolah – sekolah untuk melaksanakannya. Karena sifatnya datang dari atas, model pengembanngan kurikulum ini disebut model top down atau line staff.
Dalam pelaksanaannya, perlu diadakan monitoring, pengamatan dan pengawasan serta bimbingan. Setelah berjalan, pengembangan model ini perlu diadakan evaluasi untuk menilai baik validitas komponen – komponennya, prosedur pelaksanaan maupun keberhasilannya. Hsil penilaian tersebut meupakan umpan balik, baik bagi instalasi pendidikan di tingkat pusat, daerah maupun sekolah.
2. The grass root model
Model pengembangan ini merupakan lawan dari the administrative model. Inisiatif dan upaya pengembangan kurikulum, bukan dating dari atas tetapi dari bawah yaitu guru –guru atau sekolah –sekolah. Model pengembangan kurikulum model grass root akan berkembang dalam system pendidikan yang bersifat desentralisasi. Dalam model pengembangan yang besifata grass root seorang guru di suatu sekolah mengadakan upaya pengembangan kurikulum. Pengembangan atau penyempurnaan ini dapat berkenaan dengan seluruh bidang studi dan seluruh komponen kurikulum. Apabila kondisinya telah memungkinkan, baik dilihat dari kemampuan guru, fasilitas, biaya maupun bahan – bahan kepustakaan, pengembangan model grass root akan lebih baik. Hal itu berdasarkan atas pertimbangan bahwa guru adalah perencana, pelaksanadan penyempurna dari pengajaran di kelasanya, oleh karena itu dialah yang berkompeten dalam menyusun kurikulum bagi kelasnya. Model grass root ini memungkinkan terjadinya kompetisi di dalam meningkatkan mutu dan system pendidikan, yang pada akhirnya akan melahirkan manusia yang lebihi mandiri dan kreatif.
3. Beauchamp’y system
Model pengembangan kurikulum ini, dikembangkan oleh Beauchamp seorang ahli kurikulum. Beauchamp mengemukakan lima hal di dalam pengembangan suatu kurikulum sebagai berikut :
a. Menetapkan arena atau ruang lingkup wilayah yang akan id cakup oleh kurikulum tersebut, apakah suatu sekolah, kabupaten, propinsi ataupun seluruh negara.
b. Menetapkan personalia, yaitu siapa – siapa yang turut terlibat dalam pengembangan kurikulum. Ada empat kategori orang yang turut berpartisipasi dalam pengembangan kurikulum, yaitu : (1) para ahli pendidikan / kurikulum; (2) para ahli pendidikan dari perguruan tinggi atau sekolah dan guru – guru terpilih; (3) para professional dalam system pendidikan; (4) professional lain dan tokoh masyarakat.
c. Organisasi dan prosedur pengembangan kurikulum. Langkah ini berkenaan dengan prosedur yang harus di tempuh dalam merumuskan tujuan umum dan tujuan yang lebih khusus, memilih isi dan pengalaman belajar, serta kegiatan evaluasi dan dalam menentukan keseluruhan desain kurikulum.
d. Implementasi kurikulum. Langkah ini merupakan langkah mengimplementasikan atau melaksanakan kurikulum yang bukan sesuatu yang sederhana, sebab membutuhkan kesiapan yang menyeluruh, baik kesiapan guru – guru, siswa, fasilitas, biaya disamping kesiapan manajerial dari pimpinan sekolah atau administator setempat.
e. Melakukan evaluasi kuriukulum. Langkah ini mencakup empat hal, yaitu : (1) evaluasi tentang pelaksanaan kurikulum oleh guru – guru; (2) evaluasi desain kurikulum; (3) evaluasi hasil belajar siswa; (4) evaluasi dari keseluruhan system kurikulum.
4. The demonstration model
Model demonstrasi pada dasarnya besifat grass root, dating dari bawah. Model ini di prakarsai oleh sekelompok guru bekerja sama dengan ahli yang bermaksud mengadakan perbaikan kurikulum. Model ini umumnya berskala kecil hanya mencakup beberapa sekolah atau mencakup keseluruhan komponen kurikulum. Karen sifatnya ingin mengubah atau mengganti kurikulum yang sudah ada, pengembangan kurikulum sering mendapat tantangan dari pihak – pihak tertentu.
Menurut Smith, Stanley dan Shores ada dua variasi model model demonstrasi. Pertama, sekelompok guru dari satu sekolah atau beberapa sekolah ditunjuk untuk melaksanakan suatu percobaan tentang pengembangan kurikulum. Kedua, kurang bersifat normal. Beberapa orang guru yang merasa belum puas dengan kurikulum yang ada mencoba mengadakan penelitian dan pengembangan sendiri. Dengan kegiatan ini mereka, mengharapkan ditemukannya kurikulum yang lebih baik untuk kemudian di gunakan di daerah yang lebih luas.
Ada beberapa kebaikan dari pengembangan kurikulum dengan model demonstrasi ini. Pertama, karena kurikulum disusun dan dilaksanakan dalam situasi tertentu yang nyata maka akan dihasilkan suatu kurikulum yang lebih prakis,. Kedua, perubahan atau penyempurnaan kurikulum dalam skala kecil atau aspek tertentu yang khusus, sedikit sekali untuk ditolak oleh administator, dibandingkan dengnan perubahan dan penyempurnaan yang menyeluruh. Ketiga, pengembangan kurikulum adalah skala kecil dengan model demonstrasi dapat menembus hambatan yang sering dialami yaitu dokumentasinya bagus tetapi pelaksanaannya tidak ada. Ke empat, model ini sifatny yang grass root menempatkan guru sebagai pengambil inisiatif dan nara sumberyang dapat menjadi pendorong bagi para administator untuk mengembangkan program baru. Kelemahan model ini adalah bagi guru yang tidak turut berpartisipasi mereka akan menerimanya dengan enggan – enggan, dalam keadaan terburuk mungkin akan terjadi apatisme.
5. Taba’s inverted model
Taba berpendapat model deduktif kurang cocok sebab tidak merangsang timbulnya inovasi – inovasi. Menurutnya pengembangan kurikulum yang lebih mendorong inovasi dan kreatifitas guru – guru adalah yang bersifat induktif, yang merupakan inverse atau arah terbalik dari model tradisional.
Ada lima langkah pengembangan model Taba. Pertama mengadakan unit – unit eksperimen bersama guru – guru. Kedua menguji unit eksperimen. Ketiga mengadakan revisi dan konsolodasi. Ke empat, pengembangan keseluruhan kerangka kurikulum. Kelima, implementasi dan diseminasi yaitu, menerapkan kurikulum baru pada daerah atau sekolah – sekolah yang lebih luas.
6. Roger’s interpersonal relation model
Menurut Roger manusia berada dalam proses perubahan (becoming, developing, changing) sesungguhnya ia mempunyai kekuatan dan potensi untuk berkembang sendiri, tetapi karena ada hambatan – hambatan tertentu ia membutuhkan orang lain untuk membantu memperlancar dan mempercepat perubahan tersebut. Guru serta pendidik lainnya bukan pemberi informasi apalagi penentu perkembangan anak, mereka hanya pendorong dan pemerlancar perkembangan anak.
Ada empat langkah perkembangan kurikulum model Roger. Pertama, pemilihan target dari system pendidikan.kedua, partisipasi guru dalam pengalaman kelompok yang intensif. Ketiga, pengembangan pengalaman kelompok yang intensif untuk satu kelas atau umit pelajaran. Ke empat, partisipasi orang tua dalam kegiatan kelompok.
7. The systematic action – research model
Model kurikulum ini di dasarkan pada asumsi bahwa perkembangan kurikulum merupakan perubahan sosial. Hal itu mencakup suatu proses yang melibatkan kepribadian orang tua, siswa gur, struktur system sekolah, pola hubungan pribadi dan kelompok dari sekolah dan masyarakat. Model ini menekankan pada tiga hal : hubungna insani, sekolah dan organisasi masyarakat, serta wibawa dari pengetahuan professional.
Kurikulum di kembangkan dalam konteks harapan warga masyarakat, para orang tua, tokoh masyarakat, pengusaha, siswa, guru dan lain – lain, mempunyai pandangan tentang bagaimana pendidikan, bagaimana anak belajar, dan bagaimana peran kurikulum dalam pendidikan dan pengajaran. Penyusunan kurikulum harus memasukan pandangna dan harapan – harapan masyarakat, dan salah satu cara untuk mencapai hal itu adalah dengan prosedur action research.langkah pertama, mengadakan kajian secara seksama tentang masalah – masalah kurikulum, berupa pengumpulan data yang bersifat menyeluruh dan mengidentifikasi faktor – faktor, kekuatan dan kondisi yang mempengaruhi masalah tersebut. Dari hasil kajian tersebut dapat disusun rencana yang menyeluruh tentang cara – cara mengatasi masalah tersebut, serta tindakan pertama yang harus diambil. Kedua, mengimplementasi dari keputusan yang diambil dalam tindakan pertama. Selanjutnya kegiatan pengumpulan data dan fakta – fakta.
8. Emerging technical models
Perkembangan bidang tekhnologi dan ilmu pengetahuan serta nilai – nilai efesiensi efektifitas dalam bisnis, juga mempengaruhi perkembangan model – model kurikulum. Tumbuh kecenderungan – kecenderungan yang di dasarkan atas hal itu, diantaranya : (1) the behavioral analysis model; (2) the system analysis model; (3) the computer based model.
The behavorial analysis model menekankan penguasaan perilaku atau kemampuan. The system anjalysis model berasal dari gerakan efesiensi bisnis. The computer based model, suatu model pengembangan kurikulum dengan memanfaatkan computer.
BAB III
KESIMPULAN
Pendekatan diartikan sebagai suatu sudut pandang seseorang terhadap suatu proses tertentu. pengembangan kurikulum berarti menyusun seluruh perangkat kurikulum, mulai dari dasar – dasar kurikulum, struktur dan sebaran mata pelajaran, garis – garis besar program pengajaran, sampai dengan pedoman pelaksanaan (macro curriculum). ada dua pendekatan yang diterapkan dalam pengembangan kurikulum. Pertama pendekatan top down atau pendekatan administrative dan kedua pendekatan grass root. Pada pendekatan administrasi, menggunakan system komando yaitu dari atas ke bawah, sedangkan pendekatan grass root ini sebaliknya yaitu dari bawah ke atas.
Ada beberapa model – model pengembangan yang harus para pendidik ketahui, ada delapan model antara lain the administratif model, the grass root model, beauchamp’s system, the demonstration model, roger’s interpersonal relation model, the systematic action – research model dan juga energing technical model.
Minggu, 03 Januari 2010
CURRICULUM INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
In 1994 the Improving Educational Quality (IEQ) Project received a request from Sue Poulsom, the co-ordinator of a non-governmental organisation (NGO) training program based at the Peninsula Technikon in Cape Town and funded by the Association of Canadian Community Colleges, to conduct a workshop on curriculum analysis.
This workshop was to be the final session in a series of curriculum-related workshops entitled “Curriculum Development Workshop Programme” during which participants learned about models of, and approaches to, curriculum development, the role of media in materials development, and other related topics. The overall purpose of the series was to help build the capacity of NGOs to design, review, assess and unpck educational programs and curricula while the purpose of this workshop was to provide NGO staff, responsible for curriculum development and evaluation, with curriculum analysis tools for appraising a curriculum.
The participants included representatives from NGOs working with teachers, students, pre-schoolers, and adults, in urban and rural areas and the education and training sectors. Participants brought to the workshop a curriculum (e.g. adult literacy curriculum or curriculum to train educare workers) from their respective organisations which formed the context for the application of the curriculum analysis tools.
This document is an attempt to bring together the workshop plans, and the ideas and exchanges generated by the workshop into a user-friendly manual which could be used both by the participants as an ongoing reference, and by other organisations wishing to conduct similar training or internal analyses of their curricula. We hope that this manual provides a framework for doing curriculum analysis. We would like to thank the participants for their input and Sue Poulsom for inviting us to conduct the workshop as well her dedication to understanding that elusive thing called curriculum.
WHAT IS CURRICULUM ANALYSIS?
a) Just as CURRICULUM means different things to different people; CURRICULUM ANALYSIS means different things to different people.
Whereas CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT involves building the curriculum in order to present a coherent plan, CURRICULUM ANALYSIS involves unpacking the curriculum in order to understand the plan.
CURRICULUM ANALYSIS:
unpacks a curriculum into its component parts (e.g. learning, teaching, knowledge, society, resources); evaluates how the parts fit together, say in terms of focus and coherence; checks underlying beliefs and assumptions; and seeks justification for curriculum choices and assumptions.
CURRICULUM ANALYSIS is NOT
student assessment, although student data could inform curriculum decisions;
teacher appraisal, although teacher performance data could impact on curriculum decisions.
WHY CURRICULUM ANALYSIS?
• Some of the reasons for doing curriculum analysis are:
• to make an assessment of the curriculum in order to improve it;
• to identify potential and actual problems as early as possible and recommend possible solutions (formative assessments);
• to make decisions about future support for continuation of the curriculum (summative);
• to see if the different parts hold together;
• to determine whether the goals have been met;
• to identify strengths and successes in order to build on them;
• to examine whether assumptions underlying the curriculum are valid and defensible;to identify blindspots, biases, perspectives;to emonstrate the worth of the curriculum to different stakeholders e.g. funders.
HOW CAN THE CURRICULUM BE ANALYSED?
• We can ask the following questions of the curriculum:
• We can ask the following questions of the curriculum:
• What is the IMPACT of your curriculum?
• Does your curriculum satisfy acceptable DESIGN principles?
• Is your curriculum POLICY-relevant?
EXTERNAL micro level IMPACT ANALYSIS What are the effects of the curriculum?
INTERNAL DESIGN ANALYSIS What theories, principles, methods, standards and assumptions underpin the curriculum?
EXTERNAL POLICY What is the relevance of the curriculum in macro level ANALYSIS relation to a particular setf social policies?
WHAT THE CURRICULUM ANALYST NEEDS TO KNOW BEFORE DOING AN ANALYSIS
The analyst must ask the following questions about the curriculum prior to doing the analysis:
• What need is your curriculum responding to?
• Who is the curriculum designed for?
• Who designed the curriculum?
• What content areas does it focus on?
• Who teaches the curriculum?
• What exposure time is there to this curriculum?
• How will the success of the curriculum be determined?
• What resources does the curriculum need?
Such questions orient the analyst to the kinds of questions and tasks required in conducting a particular curriculum analysis assignment.
IMPACT ANALYSIS
Impact analysis is analysis at the external, micro level and involves looking for effects of that curriculum. Impact analysis: asks: “is the curriculum making a difference?”involves appraising the curriculum in terms of its external impact; requires a clear understanding of the programme goals; purposes and expected results; needs making decisions about the level of impact or unit of analysis; requires the articulation of clear questions concerning the impact; identifies appropriate means to measure impact.Impact analysis involves determining the extent to which one set of irected human activities (X) affected the state of some objects or phenomenon(Y) and determining why they turned out to be this way. We ask impact questions of the curriculum to determine the following:
Is the curriculum relevant or effective?
Which parts of the curriculum should be strengthened? Which parts of the curriculum should be removed?
The following types of questions measure impact :
- motivational questions
(e.g. did the trainees like the program?)
- change questions
(e.g. did the trainers train differently as a result of the training program?) Change questions may require experimental studies because of the problem of attribution i.e., determining
which factor or factors explain a particular outcome.
- sustainability questions
(e.g. were the changes induced by the training programme stable over time?) Sustainability questions require a longitudinal study i.e. measuring impact over time. Impact over time is dificult to undertake because you do not know whether the impact is due to a single factor.
The following instruments are usually used by NGOs to measure impact:
• focus group interviews;
• structured and semi-structured interviews; performance assessments;
• observations;
• tests;
• documents;
• questionnaires.
e) Impact studies must begin by specifying the level at which the impact is to be measured.
DESIGN ANALYSIS
Design Analysis involves appraising the curriculum in terms of standard or agreed-on design principles. There is no single set of design principles against which to assess a curriculum. Each set of principles offer a particular perspective on the design of a curriculum. For example, a curriculum could be analysed in terms of the Tylerian model of curriculum design or in relation to principles of learning articulated by Bloom. Design analysis includes:Determining the purpose of your curriculum.Measuring the Curriculum against agreed-on design principles.
a) Determining the purpose of your curriculum
• What is the story behind the curriculum?
• Curriculum must be understood within the historical context:
• who designed the curriculum (names and roles e.g. subject specialist, adult educator) ?
• what are the guiding principles and values of the curriculum? what set of conditions does the curriculum seek to address?
• what social, political, economic or cultural situation does it seek to respond to?
A model that has been used to unpack the design of the curriculum is one proposed by George Posner in his book Analysing the Curriculum (1992) published by McGraw-Hill. Posner unpacks the curriculum by examining it in terms of four categories of analysis: learners and learning, teachers and teaching, knowledge, society. One could extend Posner’s categories to include an analysis of curriculum in terms of available resources. Another angle from which to unpack the curriculum is in relation its core claims, assumptions and silences:
@ Claims:
What does the curriculum claim will happen to those using or exposed to the curriculum?
@ Assumptions:
What does the curriculum take for granted?
@ Silences:
What does the curriculum say nothing about?
As an example, let’s look at the claims, assumptions and silences of the following curriculum.
An organisation, EQUAL, devises a curriculum on race to address the issue of social prejudice in society.
@ Claim: the issue of race is critical to addressing the issues of social
@ Assumption : an understanding of the issue of race will reduce or eliminate social prejudice in society.
@ Silence: the curriculum says nothing about class or gender prejudices in society.
Teasing out the assumptions underlying a curriculum is not a straightforward process. Often, we are not aware of the assumptions which influence the curriculum. Uncovering assumptions requires probing beneath the surface of the document, reading between the lines, and making inferences. Looking at Posner’s categories (plus resources) in terms of assumptions, claims and silences we can devise the following grid. As an example, lets look at a statement in the 1995 White Paper on Education and Training.
The curriculum and teaching methods should encourage independent and critical thought, the capacity to question, enquire and reason, to weigh evidence and form judgments, to achieve understanding, and to recognise the provisional and incomplete nature of most human knowledge
Questions that can be asked about a curriculum are:
Is the curriculum perspective justifiable?
What does the curriculum perspective illuminate or conceal?
Does the curriculum perspective address different categories(teaching, learning,
POLICY ANALYSIS
A curriculum can also be analysed to assess its relevance or relationship to a broader set of social or educational policies.
For example a curriculum analyst might ask:
“to what extent do the goals of Curriculum Y articulate with those of the Reconstruction and Development Programme ?”
Consider the following:
The Department of Education has adopted proposals for a competency-based curriculum with specified learning outcomes encouraging articulation across programmes and institutions and progression from one level of education to the next. Anorganisation wants to assess its curriculum (Z) in terms of the new criteria since this would enhance the chances of accrediting its curriculum.
The questions a curriculum analyst might ask, in relation to the above, are:
• does Curriculum Z specify clear and consistent learning outcomes (competencies) which its trainees could accomplish by the end of the programme?
• does Curriculum Z meet the standards reflected in similar programs which are already accredited?
• does Curriculum Z meet the statement of "vision and principles" outlined in the 1995 White Paper for Education and Training?
• does Curriculum Z adequately equip students to proceed to a higher level of training or schooling in formal or non-formal institutions?
The curriculum analyst who reflects on a policy is interested in making decisions about the curriculum. Such decisions could include the following:
that Curriculum Z needs to be completely re-designed to meet specified standards of performance in a particular policy document that Curriculum Z exemplifies RDP principles and can be submitted to the Provincial Department of Education to be considered for funding and support
The curriculum analyst as a policy critic:
Sometimes a curriculum analyst may conclude that an organisation's curriculum is adequate but that a particular policy is not. In the 1980s a curriculum analyst may have posed questions which challenge and critiques a particular policy.
For example:
to what extent does Curriculum X undermine the apartheid philosophy of schooling as defined by Christian National Education?
Similarly, a curriculum analyst in the 1990s may find that the outcomes-oriented vision of the RDP's education proposals is antithetical to its own priorities i.e., to develop a curriculum which emphasises classroom processes and interactions rather than measurable outcomes.
AFTER CURRICULUM ANALYSIS,..
The task of the curriculum analyst is to "unpack" the curriculum in order to facilitate decision- making about the curriculum. The curriculum analyst does not herself make the decisions about the future of the curriculum. The organisation or institution commissioning the curriculum analyst makes the final decision about the fate of the curriculum. The following are examples of decisions and decision-makers:
The Funder decides to continue support of the curriculum since it has demonstrated considerable impact on learning gains among preschool children after they pass into junior primary school The Board of Trustees decides to recommend discontinuing support for the curriculum since its design is shown to be flawed with respect to the organisation's core Mission and principles.The Programs Division of a large NGO decides to redesign the rriculum since the analysis showed that the curriculum needs to articulate clear learning outcomes (competencies) if it is to make a successful bid for accreditation. While the curriculum analyst does not make policy or political decisions about a curriculum, she nevertheless has considerable influence on the outcome. It is critical, therefore, that the analyst works according to systematic and consistent procedures and guidelines: the fate of both programs and people may depend on it.
In 1994 the Improving Educational Quality (IEQ) Project received a request from Sue Poulsom, the co-ordinator of a non-governmental organisation (NGO) training program based at the Peninsula Technikon in Cape Town and funded by the Association of Canadian Community Colleges, to conduct a workshop on curriculum analysis.
This workshop was to be the final session in a series of curriculum-related workshops entitled “Curriculum Development Workshop Programme” during which participants learned about models of, and approaches to, curriculum development, the role of media in materials development, and other related topics. The overall purpose of the series was to help build the capacity of NGOs to design, review, assess and unpck educational programs and curricula while the purpose of this workshop was to provide NGO staff, responsible for curriculum development and evaluation, with curriculum analysis tools for appraising a curriculum.
The participants included representatives from NGOs working with teachers, students, pre-schoolers, and adults, in urban and rural areas and the education and training sectors. Participants brought to the workshop a curriculum (e.g. adult literacy curriculum or curriculum to train educare workers) from their respective organisations which formed the context for the application of the curriculum analysis tools.
This document is an attempt to bring together the workshop plans, and the ideas and exchanges generated by the workshop into a user-friendly manual which could be used both by the participants as an ongoing reference, and by other organisations wishing to conduct similar training or internal analyses of their curricula. We hope that this manual provides a framework for doing curriculum analysis. We would like to thank the participants for their input and Sue Poulsom for inviting us to conduct the workshop as well her dedication to understanding that elusive thing called curriculum.
WHAT IS CURRICULUM ANALYSIS?
a) Just as CURRICULUM means different things to different people; CURRICULUM ANALYSIS means different things to different people.
Whereas CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT involves building the curriculum in order to present a coherent plan, CURRICULUM ANALYSIS involves unpacking the curriculum in order to understand the plan.
CURRICULUM ANALYSIS:
unpacks a curriculum into its component parts (e.g. learning, teaching, knowledge, society, resources); evaluates how the parts fit together, say in terms of focus and coherence; checks underlying beliefs and assumptions; and seeks justification for curriculum choices and assumptions.
CURRICULUM ANALYSIS is NOT
student assessment, although student data could inform curriculum decisions;
teacher appraisal, although teacher performance data could impact on curriculum decisions.
WHY CURRICULUM ANALYSIS?
• Some of the reasons for doing curriculum analysis are:
• to make an assessment of the curriculum in order to improve it;
• to identify potential and actual problems as early as possible and recommend possible solutions (formative assessments);
• to make decisions about future support for continuation of the curriculum (summative);
• to see if the different parts hold together;
• to determine whether the goals have been met;
• to identify strengths and successes in order to build on them;
• to examine whether assumptions underlying the curriculum are valid and defensible;to identify blindspots, biases, perspectives;to emonstrate the worth of the curriculum to different stakeholders e.g. funders.
HOW CAN THE CURRICULUM BE ANALYSED?
• We can ask the following questions of the curriculum:
• We can ask the following questions of the curriculum:
• What is the IMPACT of your curriculum?
• Does your curriculum satisfy acceptable DESIGN principles?
• Is your curriculum POLICY-relevant?
EXTERNAL micro level IMPACT ANALYSIS What are the effects of the curriculum?
INTERNAL DESIGN ANALYSIS What theories, principles, methods, standards and assumptions underpin the curriculum?
EXTERNAL POLICY What is the relevance of the curriculum in macro level ANALYSIS relation to a particular setf social policies?
WHAT THE CURRICULUM ANALYST NEEDS TO KNOW BEFORE DOING AN ANALYSIS
The analyst must ask the following questions about the curriculum prior to doing the analysis:
• What need is your curriculum responding to?
• Who is the curriculum designed for?
• Who designed the curriculum?
• What content areas does it focus on?
• Who teaches the curriculum?
• What exposure time is there to this curriculum?
• How will the success of the curriculum be determined?
• What resources does the curriculum need?
Such questions orient the analyst to the kinds of questions and tasks required in conducting a particular curriculum analysis assignment.
IMPACT ANALYSIS
Impact analysis is analysis at the external, micro level and involves looking for effects of that curriculum. Impact analysis: asks: “is the curriculum making a difference?”involves appraising the curriculum in terms of its external impact; requires a clear understanding of the programme goals; purposes and expected results; needs making decisions about the level of impact or unit of analysis; requires the articulation of clear questions concerning the impact; identifies appropriate means to measure impact.Impact analysis involves determining the extent to which one set of irected human activities (X) affected the state of some objects or phenomenon(Y) and determining why they turned out to be this way. We ask impact questions of the curriculum to determine the following:
Is the curriculum relevant or effective?
Which parts of the curriculum should be strengthened? Which parts of the curriculum should be removed?
The following types of questions measure impact :
- motivational questions
(e.g. did the trainees like the program?)
- change questions
(e.g. did the trainers train differently as a result of the training program?) Change questions may require experimental studies because of the problem of attribution i.e., determining
which factor or factors explain a particular outcome.
- sustainability questions
(e.g. were the changes induced by the training programme stable over time?) Sustainability questions require a longitudinal study i.e. measuring impact over time. Impact over time is dificult to undertake because you do not know whether the impact is due to a single factor.
The following instruments are usually used by NGOs to measure impact:
• focus group interviews;
• structured and semi-structured interviews; performance assessments;
• observations;
• tests;
• documents;
• questionnaires.
e) Impact studies must begin by specifying the level at which the impact is to be measured.
DESIGN ANALYSIS
Design Analysis involves appraising the curriculum in terms of standard or agreed-on design principles. There is no single set of design principles against which to assess a curriculum. Each set of principles offer a particular perspective on the design of a curriculum. For example, a curriculum could be analysed in terms of the Tylerian model of curriculum design or in relation to principles of learning articulated by Bloom. Design analysis includes:Determining the purpose of your curriculum.Measuring the Curriculum against agreed-on design principles.
a) Determining the purpose of your curriculum
• What is the story behind the curriculum?
• Curriculum must be understood within the historical context:
• who designed the curriculum (names and roles e.g. subject specialist, adult educator) ?
• what are the guiding principles and values of the curriculum? what set of conditions does the curriculum seek to address?
• what social, political, economic or cultural situation does it seek to respond to?
A model that has been used to unpack the design of the curriculum is one proposed by George Posner in his book Analysing the Curriculum (1992) published by McGraw-Hill. Posner unpacks the curriculum by examining it in terms of four categories of analysis: learners and learning, teachers and teaching, knowledge, society. One could extend Posner’s categories to include an analysis of curriculum in terms of available resources. Another angle from which to unpack the curriculum is in relation its core claims, assumptions and silences:
@ Claims:
What does the curriculum claim will happen to those using or exposed to the curriculum?
@ Assumptions:
What does the curriculum take for granted?
@ Silences:
What does the curriculum say nothing about?
As an example, let’s look at the claims, assumptions and silences of the following curriculum.
An organisation, EQUAL, devises a curriculum on race to address the issue of social prejudice in society.
@ Claim: the issue of race is critical to addressing the issues of social
@ Assumption : an understanding of the issue of race will reduce or eliminate social prejudice in society.
@ Silence: the curriculum says nothing about class or gender prejudices in society.
Teasing out the assumptions underlying a curriculum is not a straightforward process. Often, we are not aware of the assumptions which influence the curriculum. Uncovering assumptions requires probing beneath the surface of the document, reading between the lines, and making inferences. Looking at Posner’s categories (plus resources) in terms of assumptions, claims and silences we can devise the following grid. As an example, lets look at a statement in the 1995 White Paper on Education and Training.
The curriculum and teaching methods should encourage independent and critical thought, the capacity to question, enquire and reason, to weigh evidence and form judgments, to achieve understanding, and to recognise the provisional and incomplete nature of most human knowledge
Questions that can be asked about a curriculum are:
Is the curriculum perspective justifiable?
What does the curriculum perspective illuminate or conceal?
Does the curriculum perspective address different categories(teaching, learning,
POLICY ANALYSIS
A curriculum can also be analysed to assess its relevance or relationship to a broader set of social or educational policies.
For example a curriculum analyst might ask:
“to what extent do the goals of Curriculum Y articulate with those of the Reconstruction and Development Programme ?”
Consider the following:
The Department of Education has adopted proposals for a competency-based curriculum with specified learning outcomes encouraging articulation across programmes and institutions and progression from one level of education to the next. Anorganisation wants to assess its curriculum (Z) in terms of the new criteria since this would enhance the chances of accrediting its curriculum.
The questions a curriculum analyst might ask, in relation to the above, are:
• does Curriculum Z specify clear and consistent learning outcomes (competencies) which its trainees could accomplish by the end of the programme?
• does Curriculum Z meet the standards reflected in similar programs which are already accredited?
• does Curriculum Z meet the statement of "vision and principles" outlined in the 1995 White Paper for Education and Training?
• does Curriculum Z adequately equip students to proceed to a higher level of training or schooling in formal or non-formal institutions?
The curriculum analyst who reflects on a policy is interested in making decisions about the curriculum. Such decisions could include the following:
that Curriculum Z needs to be completely re-designed to meet specified standards of performance in a particular policy document that Curriculum Z exemplifies RDP principles and can be submitted to the Provincial Department of Education to be considered for funding and support
The curriculum analyst as a policy critic:
Sometimes a curriculum analyst may conclude that an organisation's curriculum is adequate but that a particular policy is not. In the 1980s a curriculum analyst may have posed questions which challenge and critiques a particular policy.
For example:
to what extent does Curriculum X undermine the apartheid philosophy of schooling as defined by Christian National Education?
Similarly, a curriculum analyst in the 1990s may find that the outcomes-oriented vision of the RDP's education proposals is antithetical to its own priorities i.e., to develop a curriculum which emphasises classroom processes and interactions rather than measurable outcomes.
AFTER CURRICULUM ANALYSIS,..
The task of the curriculum analyst is to "unpack" the curriculum in order to facilitate decision- making about the curriculum. The curriculum analyst does not herself make the decisions about the future of the curriculum. The organisation or institution commissioning the curriculum analyst makes the final decision about the fate of the curriculum. The following are examples of decisions and decision-makers:
The Funder decides to continue support of the curriculum since it has demonstrated considerable impact on learning gains among preschool children after they pass into junior primary school The Board of Trustees decides to recommend discontinuing support for the curriculum since its design is shown to be flawed with respect to the organisation's core Mission and principles.The Programs Division of a large NGO decides to redesign the rriculum since the analysis showed that the curriculum needs to articulate clear learning outcomes (competencies) if it is to make a successful bid for accreditation. While the curriculum analyst does not make policy or political decisions about a curriculum, she nevertheless has considerable influence on the outcome. It is critical, therefore, that the analyst works according to systematic and consistent procedures and guidelines: the fate of both programs and people may depend on it.
ENGLISH CURRICULUM
WHAT IS CURRICULUM ANALYSIS?
CURRICULUM ANALYSIS:
Unpacks a curriculum into its component parts (e.g. learning, teaching, knowledge, society, resources); evaluates how the parts fit together, say in terms of focus and coherence; checks underlying beliefs and assumptions; and seeks justification for curriculum choices and assumptions.Tyler suggested a set of inescapable questions that must be asked of any curriculum. Johnson refined these questions into a model particularly appropriate for the analysis of formal curricula. The Tyler
WHY DO CURRICULUM ANALYSIS?
Curriculum analysis is necessary by vitue of its centrality to two important task performed by teachers and administrators: curriculum selections and curriculum adaptation. When selecting or adopting a curriculum for usein particular school, it is important to determine whether or not it is appropriate for the situations.
Some of the reasons for doing curriculum analysis are:
· to make an assessment of the curriculum in order to improve it;
· to identify potential and actual problems as early as possible and recommend possible solutions (formative assessments);
· to make decisions about future support for continuation of the curriculum (summative);
· to see if the different parts hold together;
· to determine whether the goals have been met;
· to identify strengths and successes in order to build on them;
· to examine whether assumptions underlying the curriculum are valid and defensible;to identify blindspots, biases, perspectives;to emonstrate the worth of the curriculum to different stakeholders e.g. funders.
THE PROCESS OF CURRICULUM ANALYSIS
Postner suggests the process of curriculum analisis:
© SET 1 : Curriculum documentation and origin
- How is the curriculum documented?
- What situation resulted in the development of the curriculum?
- What perspective does the curriculum represent?
© SET 2 : Curriculum proper
- What are the purposes and content of the curriculum?
- How is the curriculum organized?
© SET 3 : Curriculum in use
- How should the curriculum be implemented?
- What can be learned from an evaluation of the curriculum?
© SET 4 : Curriculum critique
- What are the curriculum strenghts and limitations?
THE CONCEPTS OF CURRICULUM ANALISIS
There are three concepts of curriculum analisis:
EXTERNAL micro level | IMPACT ANALYSIS | What are the effects of the curriculum? | ||
INTERNAL | DESIGN ANALYSIS | What theories, principles, methods, standards and assumptions underpin the curriculum? |
EXTERNAL POLICY What is the relevance of the curriculum in macro level ANALYSIS relation to a particular setf social policies?
IMPACT ANALYSIS
Impact analysis is analysis at the external, micro level and involves looking for effects of that curriculum. Impact analysis: asks: “is the curriculum making a difference?”involves appraising the curriculum in terms of its external impact; requires a clear understanding of the programme goals; purposes and expected results; needs making decisions about the level of impact or unit of analysis; requires the articulation of clear questions concerning the impact; identifies appropriate means to measure impact.
DESIGN ANALYSIS
Design Analysis involves appraising the curriculum in terms of standard or agreed-on design principles. There is no single set of design principles against which to assess a curriculum. Each set of principles offer a particular perspective on the design of a curriculum. For example, a curriculum could be analysed in terms of the Tylerian model of curriculum design or in relation to principles of learning articulated by Bloom. Design analysis includes:Determining the purpose of your curriculum.Measuring the Curriculum against agreed-on design principles.
A model that has been used to unpack the design of the curriculum is one proposed by George Posner in his book Analysing the Curriculum (1992) published by McGraw-Hill. Posner unpacks the curriculum by examining it in terms of four categories of analysis: learners and learning, teachers and teaching, knowledge, society. One could extend Posner’s categories to include an analysis of curriculum in terms of available resources. Another angle from which to unpack the curriculum is in relation its core claims, assumptions and silences:
POLICY ANALYSIS
A curriculum can also be analysed to assess its relevance or relationship to a broader set of social or educational policies.
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